OUAGADOUGOU, Burkina Faso
Several thousand people demonstrated in Ouagadougou for the "sovereignty" of Burkina Faso, in support of the junta in power, a few days after the confirmation of the departure of French forces from the country by the end of January.
"We have decided to take our destiny in hand and it is not the international community or anyone else who will stop us," said Pan-Africanist Fatime Nahor N'Gawara.
With anti-France feelings running high in many of its former colonies in West Africa, Paris is being forced to retreat ever further from the increasingly unstable region and re-think its presence, experts say.
After the ruling junta in Mali forced French troops out last year, the army officers running neighbouring Burkina Faso followed suit this week, asking Paris to empty its garrison in the next month.
Under President Emmanuel Macron, France was already drawing down its troops across the Sahel region, who just a few years ago numbered more than 5,000, backed up with fighter jets, helicopters and infantry fighting vehicles.
Around 3,000 remain, but the forced departures from Mali and Burkina Faso -- as well as the Central African Republic to the south last year -- underline how anti-French winds are gathering force.
"France is paying for its desire to maintain a very significant political and military presence in its former dominions," said Jean-Herve Jezequel, a region specialist from the International Crisis Group (ICG), a conflict-focused think tank.
After the independence movement in the 1950s and 60s, Paris still intervened regularly in the domestic affairs of its former colonies and for decades retained sway through business and political ties under an unofficial policy known as "Francafrique".
Today its influence has shrunk and it faces growing competition from Russia, but its permanent military presence and the existence of common regional currencies underpinned by the French central bank are targets for populist politicians.
"The idea that the former colonial power can retain such a strong military presence is hard to stomach for many people," Jezequel told AFP, adding that there remained a "post-colonial hangover that has not been resolved".
Gilles Yabi, founder of the Senegal-based WATHI think-tank, told AFP there was a "desire from some sections of society to enter a new phase, to grasp a 'new independence'."
The biggest source of anti-French feeling is Paris's military intervention in Mali in 2013 to beat back jihadists who were advancing from the north and threatening to overrun the government in the capital Bamako.
Though the operation was a success and the elected government saved, any credit has long since disappeared.
A heavy French presence afterwards failed to stop the insurgency spreading, with the violence spilling over into neighbouring countries and now threatening communities all over the Sahel region beneath the Sahara desert.
"It is clear that it (France) has not managed to stop the continued worsening of the security crisis, which has many, many different causes," said Paul Melly, an expert on the Sahel and consulting fellow at the Chatham House, a London-based think tank.
"People say 'if they're here, what use are they?'", he said.
Social media posts and deliberate disinformation campaigns -- for which Paris blames Russia -- have also fanned exaggerated or false stories about French exploitation of minerals and gold in the region, or even French support for jihadist groups.
Politicians, particularly army figures with no democratic legitimacy, are quick to see an opportunity.
"When you're a fragile military regime that has taken power quite recently, standing up to the French or telling them to get out is one way of keeping a bit of the base on side," Melly added.
But France-bashing is not limited to coup leaders in Mali or Burkino Faso.
In Senegal, President Macky Sall is regularly accused by his opponents of taking instructions from his "master" in Paris ahead of elections next year, with top rival Ousmane Sonko backing a reset in relations.
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